learning theories

Learning Theories 
 What is the difference between the learning theories in terms of the practice of instructional design? 
-approach more easily achieved than another? To address this, one may consider that cognitive theory is the
-dominant theory in instructional design and many of the instructional strategies advocated and utilized by
-behaviorists are also used by cognitivists, but for different reasons. For example, behaviorists assess learners to
-determine a starting point for instruction, while cognitivists look at the learner to determine their predisposition
-to learning (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). With this in mind, the practice of instructional design can be viewed from
-a behaviorist/cognitivist approach as opposed to a constructivist approach.
-When designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist stance, the designer analyzes the situation and sets a goal.
-Individual tasks are broken down and learning objectives are developed. Evaluation consists of determining
-whether the criteria for the objectives has been met. In this approach the designer decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner. The learning package is somewhat of a closed system, since although it may allow for some branching and remediation, the learner is still confined to the designer's "world".
-To design from a constructivist approach requires that the designer produces a product that is much more
-facilitative in nature than prescriptive. The content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the learner and assessment is much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self-evaluation of the learner. The standard pencil-and-paper tests of mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes, early drafts, final products and journals.
(Assessment [On-line])
-Because of the divergent, subjective nature of constructive learning, it is easier for a designer to work from the systems, and thus the objective approach to instructional design. That is not to say that classical instructional design techniques are better than constructive design, but it is easier, less time consuming and most likely less expensive to design within a "closed system" rather than an "open" one. Perhaps there is some truth in the statement that "Constructivism is a 'learning theory', more than a 'teaching approach'." (Wilkinson, 1995)
-Learning Theories - Some Strengths and Weaknesses
-What are the perceived strengths and weaknesses of using certain theoretical approaches to instructional design?
Behaviorism
-Weakness -the learner may find themselves in a situation where the stimulus for the correct response does not occur, therefore the learner cannot respond. - A worker who has been conditioned to respond to a certain cue at work stops production when an anomaly occurs because they do not understand the system.
-Strength - the learner is focused on a clear goal and can respond automatically to the cues of that goal. -
-W.W.II pilots were conditioned to react to silhouettes of enemy planes, a response which one would hope became automatic.
Cognitivism
-Weakness - the learner learns a way to accomplish a task, but it may not be the best way, or suited to the learner or the situation. For example, logging onto the internet on one computer may not be the same as logging in on another computer.
-Strength - the goal is to train learners to do a task the same way to enable consistency. - Logging onto and off of a workplace computer is the same for all employees; it may be important do an exact routine to avoid problems.
Constructivism
-Weakness - in a situation where conformity is essential divergent thinking and action may cause problems.
-Imagine the fun Revenue Canada would have if every person decided to report their taxes in their own way
-although, there probably are some very "constructive" approaches used within the system we have.
-Strength - because the learner is able to interpret multiple realities, the learner is better able to deal with real life situations. If a learner can problem solve, they may better apply their existing knowledge to a novel situation.
(Schuman, 1996)
-Is There One Best Learning Theory for Instructional Design?
-Why bother with Theory at all?
-A solid foundation in learning theory is an essential element in the preparation of ISD professionals because it permeates all dimensions of ISD (Shiffman, 1995). Depending on the learners and situation, different learning theories may apply. The instructional designer must understand the strengths and weaknesses of each learning theory to optimize their use in appropriate instructional design strategy. Recipes contained in ID theories may have value for novice designers (Wilson, 1997), who lack the experience and expertise of veteran designers.
-Theories are useful because they open our eyes to other possibilities and ways of seeing the world. Whether werealize it or not, the best design decisions are most certainly based on our knowledge of learning theories.
-An Eclectic Approach to Theory in Instructional Design
-The function of ID is more of an application of theory, rather than a theory itself. Trying to tie Instructional
-Design to one particular theory is like school vs. the real world. What we learn in a school environment does not always match what is out there in the real world, just as the prescriptions of theory do not always apply in practice, (the real world). From a pragmatic point of view, instructional designers find what works and use it.
What Works and How Can We Use It?
-Behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism - what works where and how do we knit everything together to at least give ourselves some focus in our approach to instructional design? -First of all we do not need to abandon the systems approach but we must modify it to accommodate constructivist values. We must allow circumstances surrounding the learning situation to help us decide which approach to learning is most appropriate.
-It is necessary to realize that some learning problems require highly prescriptive solutions, whereas others are more suited to learner control of the environment. (Schwier, 1995)
Jonnassen in ([On-line]) identified the following types of learning and matched them with what he believes to be appropriate learning theory approaches.
Manifesto for a Constructive Approach to Technology in Higher Education
1. Introductory Learning - learners have very little directly transferable prior knowledge about a
skill or content area. They are at the initial stages of schema assembly and integration. At this stage classical instructional design is most suitable because it is predetermined, constrained, sequential and criterion-referenced. The learner can develop some anchors for further exploration.
2. Advanced Knowledge Acquisition - follows introductory knowledge and precedes expert
knowledge. At this point constructivist approaches may be introduced.
3. Expertise is the final stage of knowledge acquisition. In this stage the learner is able to make
intelligent decisions within the learning environment. A constructivist approach would work well
in this case.
-Having pointed out the different levels of learning, Jonassen stresses that it is still important to consider the context before recommending any specific methodology.
-Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory which organizes instruction in increasing order of complexity and moves from prerequisite learning to learner control may work in the eclectic approach to instructional design, since them learner can be introduced to the main concepts of a course and then move on to more of a self directed studyn that is meaningful to them and their particular context.
-After having compared and contrasted behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism, Ertmer and Newby (1993) feel that the instructional approach used for novice learners may not be efficiently stimulating for a learner who is familiar with the content. They do not advocate one single learning theory, but stress that instructional strategy and content addressed depend on the level of the learners.
-Similar to Jonassen, they match learning theories with the content to be learned:
... a behavioral approach can effectively facilitate mastery of the content of a
profession (knowing what); are useful in teaching problem
-solving tactics where defined facts and rules are applied in unfamiliar situations
(knowing how); and are especially suited to dealing with ill-defined problems through reflection-in-action. (Ertmer P. & Newby, T., 1993)
cognitive strategies
constructivist strategies
Behavioral
... tasks requiring a low degree of processing (e.g., basic paired associations,
discriminations, rote memorization) seem to be facilitated by strategies most
frequently associated with a behavioral outlook (e.g., stimulus-response, contiguity
of feedback/reinforcement).
Cognitive
Tasks requiring an increased level of processing (e.g., classifications, rule or
procedural executions) are primarily associated with strategies
having a stronger cognitive emphasis (e.g., schematic organization, analogical
reasoning, algorithmic problem solving).
Tasks demanding high levels of processing (e.g., heuristic problem solving,
personal selection and monitoring of cognitive strategies) are frequently
Constructive
est learned with strategies advanced by the constructivist perspective (e.g.,
situated learning, cognitive apprenticeships, social negotiation.
(Ertmer P. & Newby, T., 1993)