KAEDAH PENGAJARAN

KAEDAH PENGAJARAN

Abd Ghafar Md. Din (2003) Prinsip dan amalan pengajaran.Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publication & Distributors Sdn Bhd.

Kaedah boleh ditafsirkan sebagai peringkat di mana sesuatu teori pengajaran itu dipraktikkan.(hlm. 47). Dalam sesuatu kaedah pengajaran, mungkin terdapat satu atau lebih teknik yang diguanakan. Misalnya, ketika menggunakan kaedah kulaih atau syarahan, guru juga mnggunakan teknik penceritaan.

KAEDAH DAN TEKNIK PENGAJARAN

1. Kaedah kuliah / Syarahan

2. Kaedah Perbincangan

    - kaedah terbahagi kepada 2 jenis iaitu perbincangan formal dan perbincangan tidak   

       formal

3. Kaedah Projek

   – 3 jenis iaitu projek pengeluaran, projek pengguna, projek latih tubi.

4. Kaedah menyelesaikan masalah

    - pelajar diberi satu atau lebih masalah dan mereka  

      diberi peluang dan kebebasan untuk menyelesaikan masalah tersebut.

5. Kaedah Dapatan

    - mencabar pelajar mencari jawapan berdasarkan maklumat yang diberi oleh guru. Guru memberikan

      maklumat yang kurang lengkap tentang sesuatu masalah dan pelajar diminta melengkapkan atau mencari

      jawapan bagi tugasan yang dikemukakan oleh guru.

6. Kaedah permainan.

    - Kaedah ini digunakan oleh guru untuk memenuhi masa yang terluang pada akhir masa pengajaran.

7. Kaedah main-peranan.

    -Kaedah ini berbentuk lakonan dan dilakukan secara spontan, Lakonan /drama ringkas ini melibatkan

      lebih daripada 2 pelajar.

8. Kaedah simulasi.

   -Dalam kaedah simulasi, pelajar menjalani proses pembelajaran dalam keadaan yang menghampiri

     keadaan sebenar.Dalam melakonkan aktiviti tersebut, pelajar akan merasai situasi yang sebenar dan akan betindak mengikut apa yang terhasil daripada aktivti yang mereka lakukan.

MODEL PEMBELAJARAN

The ASSURE Model

 

To become skilled in todays classrooms it is crucial to know when to use a wide range of instructional strategies and passive and interactive media. Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, D. J., & Smaldino, E. S., (2002) stated to use media and technologies effectively a systematic plan for thier use is necessary. They suggest utilizing the ASSURE model as a guide, which identifies six major steps in an instructional planning process.  

The Assure Model is:       

Ø      A procedural guide for planning and delivering instruction that integrates technology and media into the teaching process.

Ø      A systematic approach to writing lesson plans.

Ø      A plan used to help teachers organize instructional procedures.

Ø      A plan used to help teachers do an authentic assessment of student learning.

Ø     A model that can be used by all presenters.   

Analyze learners:   

General Characteristics 

 This is a description of the class as a whole. This includes such information as the number of students, grade or age level, gender, socioeconomic factors, exceptionalities, and cultural/ethnic/or other types of diversity.

 

Entry Competencies

This is a description of the types of knowledge expected of the learners.  Ask questions such as: Do the learners have the knowledge base required to enter the lesson? Do the learners have the entry competencies and technical vocabulary for this lesson? Have the learners already mastered the skills you are planning to teach? Do the learners have biases or misconceptions about the subject?

State Objectives

Statements describing what the learner will do as a result of instruction.  Things to keep in mind as you write your objectives are:

Ø      Focus on the learner, not the teacher

Ø      Use behaviors that reflect real world concerns

Ø      Objectives are descriptions of the learning outcomes and are written using the ABCD format.

      Audience:

Who is the audience? Specifies the learner(s) for whom the objective is intended.

      Behavior:

What do you want them to do? The behavior or capability needs to be demonstrated as learner performance, an observable, measurable behavior, or a real-world skill.  Use an action verb from the helpful verbs list if you have difficulty doing this.

      Condition:

Under what circumstances or conditions are the learners to demonstrate the skill being taught? Be sure to include equipment, tools, aids, or references the learner may or may not use, and/or special environmental conditions in which the learner has to perform.        Degree: How well do you want them to demonstrate their mastery? Degree to which the new skill must be mastered or the criterion for acceptable performance (include time limit, range of accuracy, proportion of correct responses required, and/or qualitative standards.)   Examples of Objective Statements:   The Drama I class will be able to identify and draw stage directions using pencils and rulers with 100% accuracy.  (Or) The kindergarten class will identify the colors, red, green, and blue using blocks 9 out of 10 tries.  (Or) The Tenth grade English class will identify and discuss the effects of symbolism in the short story "Young Goodman Brown" using their text, Paper, and Pen in one hour.   Use as many objective statements needed in order to meet the different objectives for the lesson. Use the following questions to assess objectives.   Does the objective allow you to do the following with your lesson? 1.      Identify what the expectations are for the learner 2.      Identify the necessary requirements for the learning environment 3.      Assess learning 4.      Determine needs for appropriate media or materials   How would you classify your objective?  Is the learning outcome primarily: 1.      Cognitive? 2.      Affective? 3.      Psychomotor / Motor Skill? 4.      Interpersonal? 5.      Intrapersonal? Select, modify, design Methods, Media, & Materials This is the step where the Instructor will build a bridge between the audience and the objectives. You need to decide what method you will primarily use: a lecture, group work, a field trip, etc. What media you will use: photos, multimedia, video, a computer? Are you using store bought materials, getting an outside resource to provide materials, modifying something you already have, or making something from scratch?   Selection Criteria Media Selection   Ø      Media should be selected on the basis of student need. Ø      We must consider the total learning situation. Ø      Should follow learning objectives. Ø      Must be appropriate for the teaching format. Ø      Should be consistent with the students' capabilities and learning styles. Ø      Should be chosen objectively. Ø      Should be selected in order to best meet the learning outcomes. Ø      No single medium is the total solution. Ø      Does it match the curriculum? Ø      Is it accurate and current? Ø      Does it contain clear and concise language? Ø      Will it motivate and maintain interest? Ø      Does it provide for learner participation? Ø      Is it of good technical quality? Ø      Is there evidence of its effectiveness (e.g., field-test results)? Ø      Is it free from objectionable bias and advertising Ø      Is a user guide or other documentation included?   Utilize Methods, Media, & Materials Plan of how you are going to implement your media and materials. For each type of media and/or materials listed under Select, modify, and design describe in detail how you are going to implement them into your lesson to help your learners meet the lesson's objective.  Please write in full sentences; do this for each item.   In order to utilize materials correctly there are several steps to creating good student-centered instruction. 1.      Preview the material- Never use anything in class you havent thoroughly checked out. 2.      Prepare the material- Make sure you have everything you need and that it all works. 3.      Prepare the environment- Set up the classroom so that whatever youre doing will work in the space you have. 4.      Prepare the learners- Give the students an overview, explain how they can take this information and use it and how they will be evaluated up front. 5.      Provide the learning experience- Teaching is simply high theatre. Showmanship is part of the facilitators job. Teaching and learning should be an experience not an ordeal. Require Learner Participation Describe how you are going to get each learner "actively and individually involved in the lesson.  Ex:  games, group work, presentations, skit, etc. Remember that the days of sage on the stage are gone. Our role in the classroom today is one of a guide on the side and students, especially with technology connected lessons, need to experience learning. All activities should provide opportunities to manipulate the information and allow time for practice during the demonstration of the skill.     Evaluate and Revise Describe how you will, in the future, measure whether or not the lesson objectives were met.  Were the media and the instruction effective?   Evaluate student performance: How will you determine whether or not they met the lesson's objective?      The evaluation should match the objective. Some objectives can be adequately assessed with a pen and paper test. If the objectives call for demonstrating a process, creating a product, or developing an attitude, the evaluation will frequently require observing the behavior in action.    Evaluate media components: How will you determine the media effectiveness?       Evaluate instructor performance: How will you determine whether or not your own performance as instructor/facilitator was effective? The ADDIE MODEL The ADDIE model is the generic process traditionally used by instructional designers and training developers. The five phases—Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation—represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective training and performance support tools. It is an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) model. Most of the current instructional design models are spin-offs or variations of the ADDIE model; other models include the Dick & Carey and Kemp ISD models. One commonly accepted improvement to this model is the use of rapid prototyping. This is the idea of receiving continual or formative feedback while instructional materials are being created. This model attempts to save time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. Instructional theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism, constructivism, social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials. Analysis Phase In the analysis phase, the instructional problem is clarified, the instructional goals and objectives are established and the learning environment and learner's existing knowledge and skills are identified. Below are some of the questions that are addressed during the analysis phase: Who are the learners and what are their characteristics? What is the new behavioral outcome? What types of learning constraints exist? What are the delivery options? What are the online pedagogical considerations? What are the Adult Learning Theory considerations? What is the timeline for project completion?   Design Phase The design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, content, subject matter analysis, lesson planning and media selection. The design phase should be systematic and specific. Systematic means a logical, orderly method of identifying, developing and evaluating a set of planned strategies targeted for attaining the project's goals. Specific means each element of the instructional design plan needs to be executed with attention to details. These are steps involved in design phase: Document the project's instructional, visual and technical design strategy Apply instructional strategies according to the intended behavioral outcomes by domain (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor). Design the user interface and user experience Create prototype Apply visual design (graphic design)  The Development Phase The development phase is where instructional designers and developers create and assemble the content assets that were blueprinted in the design phase. In this phase, storyboards and graphics are designed. If elearning is involved, programmers develop and/or integrate technologies. Testers perform debugging procedures. The project is reviewed and revised according to the feedback received.  The Implementation Phase During the implementation phase, a procedure for training the facilitators and the learners is developed. The facilitators' training should cover the course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and testing procedures. Preparation of the learners includes training them on new tools (software or hardware) and student registration. This is also the phase where the project manager ensures that the books, hands-on equipment, tools, CD-ROMs and software are in place, and that the learning application or website is functional. The Evaluation Phase The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists of tests designed for domain specific criterion-related referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from the users which were identified   http://www.sabah.edu.my/skpmtdon/notes/Teori%20&%20Model%20P&P.pdf

MEDIA PENGAJARAN

Media Pengajaran / instructional media

from: http://www.umdnj.edu/idsweb/idst5330/instructional_media.htm
        http://www.myqalam.net/umum/ptp/MEDIA%20PENGAJARAN_files/frame.htm

TEORI PIAGET(1896-1980)

Piaget (1896- 1980)

-Born in 1896 in Neuchatel in Switzerland 
-A Professor of medieval literature at the University of Neuchatel 
-Developed interest in biology and the natural world-1929-1968, Jean Piaget accepted   the post of - --Director of the International Bureau of Education

-Was a biologist who studied molluses but moved into the study of the development of children’s understanding, through observing them and talking and listening to them while they worked on exercises he set. 
-Died in 1980

-Piaget’s Theory identifies 4 developmental stages and the processes by which children progress through them.

n  Sensorimotor stage

n  Preoperational stage

n  Concrete operations

n  Formal operations

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth 2 years old)

n  The child, through physical interaction with his or her environment, builds a set of concepts about reality and how it works

n  A child does not know that physical objects remain in existence even when out of sight

2. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7)

n  The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and need concrete physical situations

3. Concrete operations (ages 7 - 11)

n  As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his/her physical experiences

n  Abstract problem solving is possible at this stage

n  Example. Arithmetic equations can be solved with numbers

4. Formal operations (beginning at age 11 – 15)

n  The child’s cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning

Piaget’s Cognitive Learning Theory

n  5 basic idea

n  1. Schema

n  2. Adaptation and Equilibration

n  3. Assimilation and Accommodation

1. Schema

n  Refer structured clusters of information which is used to represent a certain event, concept, action or process

n  Schema is expressed in the form of action, language, thinking, opinion or idea that represent characteristics of individual behaviour is known as individual’s schema

n  Piaget – change in children schema is actually the result obtained from learning

2. Adaptation and Equilibration

n  According to Piaget’s Theory, adaptation is a process of change in schema so as to meet the requirement of a certain situation

n  The process of adaptation of an individual behaviour in the environment is a learning process

n  Piaget referred this internal motivating force as intrinsic motivation of the individual to adapt in the environment

3. Assimilation and Accommodation

n  According to Piaget’s opinion, adaptation covers 2 forms – assimilation and accommodation

n  Assimilation and accommodation depend on decision involving the individual’s cognitive structure/cognitive schema

n  Individual use own experiences, opinion, attitude and the form of reaction that they possessed to implement the process of self-adaptation

Accommodation

n  The phenomenon of changing the cognitive structure due to the adaptation process is known as accommodation

n  Individual tries to take the initiative to change the cognitive structure so as to adapt to the requirement of new learning situation

Implications of Piaget’s Theory in teaching and learning

n  Learning content arranged to the children’s level of cognitive development

    - From concrete to abstract

n  Learning is a changing behaviour.

    - New and complex learning ought to utilize

      accommodation process to change the

      individual’s cognitive structure so as to adapt

      to the the new and complex learning situation

n  Accommodation process depends on individual’s intrinsic motivation

TEORI PELAZIMAN OPERAN (BURRHUS F.SKINNER)

Teori Pelaziman Operand (Burrhus F. Skinner, 1904-1990)

-Operan bermaksud bertindak ke atas
-Pelaziman operan ialah apabila organisme menghasilkan gerak balas kerana organisme itu mengoperat ke atas persekitarannya
-Organisme mempunyai pilihan bertindak/tidak kerana bergerak balas menentukan rangsangan (makanan) diberikan.

Prinsip-prinsip Pelaziman Operan

1. Peneguhan
-Peneguhan positif
-Peneguhan negatif

2. Denda

1. Peneguhan Positif

• Rangsangan yang menambah kebarangkalian tingkahlaku itu akan berlaku

Generalisasi

• Peneguhan hampir sama dengan peneguhan asal boleh menghasilkan gerak balas yang sama

Diskriminasi

• Organisme bergerakbalas terhadap sesuatu peneguhan tetapi tidak pada peneguhan lain

Penghapusan

• Gerakbalas berperingkat terhapus apabila peneguhan/ganjaran tidak diberikan

Pembentukan Tingkahlaku

• Skinner (1951)-berasaskan pelaziman operan, memperkembangkan teknik pembentukan bagi melatih haiwan menguasai tingkahlaku

Contoh

• Reaksi pendengar mempengaruhi penceramah.                                                        -Pelajar-pelajar mengangguk kepala menyebabkan penceramah bergerak lebih cepat dalam kelas.

2. Peneguhan Negatif

• Rangsangan yang menyakiti mewujudkan tidak selesa menambahkan kebarangkalian tingkahlaku akan berlaku

Denda

• Rangsangan yang menyebabkan kebarangkalian gerakbalas/tingkahlaku terhasilkurang/dihapuskan

Jadual Peneguhan

• Skinner – cara peneguhan yang diberi boleh mempengaruhi gerak balas/respon

Skinner cadang 2 jenis peneguhan

1. Peneguhan berterusan
2. Peneguhan berkala

Peneguhan berterusan

Setiap kali gerak balas dihasilkan, organisme menerima ganjaran/peneguhan

Peneguhan berkala

• Ganjaran/peneguhan diberi menurut kekerapan tertentu/masa tertentu
• Ganjaran diberi mengikut nisbah
• Ganjaran diberi mengikut masa

Menurut Nisbah

1. Nisbah tetap – peneguhan setelah beberapa gerakbalas
• Nisbah 20:1
• Setiap 20 gerakbalas, satu peneguhan
2. Nisbah berubah – peneguhan diberi setelah gerak balas wujud tetapi tidak tetap
   • Nisbah 20:1 atau 10:1
   
   
   Menurut Masa
   
   
   
   

   • Masa tetap -Peneguhan  diberi pada akhir masa  ditetapkan.
   • Dalam I minit, peneguhan diberikan kepada gerak balas selepas 1 minit.
   • Masa berubah - Peneguhan diberi pada  akhir masa yang ditetapkan  tetapi masa yang ditetapkan berbeza mengikut gerakbalas.
   
   
   Aplikasi Teori Skinner dalam bilik darjah
   
   
   
   

   • Memberi peneguhan positif pada tindakan baik
   • Ganjaran sesuai dengan kesukaran pembelajaran
   • Berhati-hati memberi peneguhan negatif
   • Latihan berulang untuk pengukuhan pembelajaran
   • Keutamaan dalam latihan yang mewujudkan pengukuhan